Figure 1: Three-dimensional models constructed from computed tomography scans of an older juvenile of Terebratulina unguicula (CAS183808; locality info: California, Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctu...

Figure 2: Consensus cladogram (left), illustrating a hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships among named orders of brachiopods; elongated green ellipses around terminal circles denote eight named bra...

Figure 3: Hypotheses of phylogenetic relationship among Spiralia. Red dots indicate nodes with poor or conflicting support, and names that have been associated with those clades are in red; blue recta...

Figure 4: Three hypotheses of relationship among extant brachiopods and phoronids. (a) Parsimony analysis of 112 morphological and embryological characters distributed among exemplar taxa from each ex...

Figure 5: Three-dimensional geometry of the base of the two brachiopod lophophore arms (tentacles/filaments absent). Black dots indicate the posterior position of the mouth between the two arms. Arrow...

Figure 6: Articulated brachiopod dorsal valve interiors illustrating mineralized lophophore supports tallied in Figure 7. (a) Brachiophores: paired projections visible just below strophic hinge line, ...

Figure 7: (a) Histogram of the number of genera per Phanerozoic time period possessing one of five different types of mineralized lophophore supports or no mineralized support at all, counted (S.J. Ca...

Figure 8: Generic diversity per geological stage in the Phanerozoic Eon, color-coded by ordinal affiliation. Adapted from Curry & Brunton (2007), with permission from G. Curry.

Figure 1: Permafrost thaw impacts soil properties and microbial metabolic potential differently at lowland and highland elevations. The permafrost is overlain by a seasonally thawed active layer that ...

Figure 1: Exponential increases in atmospheric CO2 and CH4 concentrations since 1850 (adapted from Raynaud et al. 2002).

Figure 2: The spread of agriculture from several centers of origin during the past 10,000 years (after Bellwood 2004, Fuller 2010). Numbers (white font) mark the time in thousands of years of initial ...

Figure 3: The radiocarbon-dated time of arrival of the fertile crescent crop package in southwest Asia and Europe (after Zohary & Hopf 1993).

Figure 4: The radiocarbon-dated spread of irrigated rice agriculture across southern Asia (adapted from Fuller et al. 2011).

Figure 5: Land-use records (incomplete and fully reliable) of deforestation and reforestation.

Figure 6: Estimate of global human population and farming technologies during the Holocene (after McEvedy & Jones 1978).

Figure 7: (a) Per-capita decrease of cultivated land in China (after Buck 1937, Chao 1986) (the anomalously low cultivation value in the year 976 followed shortly after a war that left much of the lan...

Figure 8: Land-use simulations of clearance of natural vegetation as of 1800 based on (top) historical records of large early per-capita clearance (KK10 1800) and (bottom) the assumption of small cons...

Figure 9: Estimated area of rice farming from 5,000 to 1,000 years ago (after Fuller et al. 2011).

Figure 10: Two schematic plots of the relative amount of forest clearance during industrial and preindustrial times. Note scale changes at 1,000 years ago.

Figure 11: Preindustrial Holocene CH4 and CO2 concentrations (red circles) compared with average (dark blue circles) and standard deviation (light blue shading) during previous interglaciations (based...

Figure 12: (a) Estimated effect of CH4 emissions from irrigated rice agriculture on atmospheric concentrations compared with (b) CH4 values measured in Dome C ice core prior to the industrial era (EPI...

Figure 13: Radiocarbon-dated first appearances of domesticated livestock in Asia and Africa (after Fuller et al. 2011).

Figure 14: Model simulation of cumulative release of carbon (KK10 carbon emissions curve) caused by preindustrial land clearance from 7,000 years ago until the year 1850 compared with estimated popula...

Figure 15: Holocene trend in atmospheric CO2 concentration compared with two differing estimates of past population levels: CO2 concentrations from EPICA Community Members (2004) (red circles); popula...

Figure 16: Two estimates of carbon transfers among major reservoirs that account for a net release of ∼50 billion tons of carbon to the atmosphere in the past 7,000 years: (a) small peat burial and an...

Figure 17: Direct anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and CH4 warm the ocean, which sends additional CO2 to the atmosphere as a feedback.

Figure 18: Two schematic plots of increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations caused by anthropogenic carbon emissions during industrial and preindustrial times. Note scale changes at 1,000 years ago.

Figure 19: Change in global average temperature for different concentrations of atmospheric CO2 (courtesy of J.E. Kutzbach, work in progress).

Figure 20: Model simulation of months of permanent snow cover if greenhouse-gas concentrations today were as low as those predicted by the early-anthropogenic hypothesis (adapted from Vavrus et al. 20...

Figure 21: Two schematic plots of the relative size of anthropogenically driven temperature increases during industrial and preindustrial times. Note scale changes at 1,000 years ago.

Figure 1: Map of Metropolitan New York showing areas of high population and vulnerability to coastal flooding due to their low elevation (from http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/news/2006/story05-...

Figure 2: Annual averages of global mean sea level from IPCC (2007). The red data are updated from Church & White (2006); the blue data are from Holgate & Woodworth (2004), and the gray curve is based...

Figure 3: (a) Flooded street in Ship Bottom, New Jersey (photo taken at neap tide accompanied by strong winds; from Titus 2002). (b) Map of low-lying areas in North Carolina (after Titus & Richman 200...

Figure 4: Effect of sea-level rise on the populations and croplands of the Nile Delta (from Simonett & Sestini 2007; http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/nile_delta_potential_impact_of_sea_level_rise).

Figure 5: The Bruun rule of shoreline retreat (after Cooper & Pilkey 2004).

Figure 6: The Generalized Bruun rule of Dean & Maurmeyer (1983) showing the entire barrier island system maintaining its form while migrating landward under the influence of sea-level rise.

Figure 7: Conceptual model of the major factors affecting marsh elevation (after Argow 2006).

Figure 8: Platform (a) versus ramped (b) morphologies in tidal wetlands (after Argow 2006). Marsh zones are shown relative to mean tide level (MTL), mean high water (MHW), mean spring high water (HHW)...

Figure 9: Rates of vertical accretion on tidal marshes based on a survey of the published literature, subdivided by type of marsh. Yellow bars represent mean vertical accretion; whiskers represent the...

Figure 10: Observed productivity of the low-marsh grass Spartina alterniflora versus depth of inundation below mean high tide (MHT) of high-marsh (red circles) and low-marsh (blue circles) sites. Dept...

Figure 11: Map of the likelihood of the conversion of wetlands to open water for Long Island given three rates of relative SLR. Lower rates are at the left. From Reed et al. (2006).

Figure 12: Barrier island and tidal inlet environments (after Pettijohn et al. 1988).

Figure 13: (a) Oblique aerial view of the Castle Neck barrier island and tidal inlet system in northern Massachusetts. (b) Vertical aerial photograph of Essex Inlet, MA, shown in top of accompanying p...

Figure 14: Oblique aerial photograph of Masonboro Island looking south. Long-term erosion of this barrier has led to a continuous thin sand sheet transgressing over the marsh. (Photograph by Bill Clea...

Figure 15: Morphologic evolution of the Isles Dernieres, Louisiana, showing the thinning of the barriers and widening of the tidal inlets (updated maps from Williams et al. 1992).

Figure 16: Sequential photographs illustrating the formation of New Inlet and more recent development of the Nauset Breach, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, which occurred in mid-April 2007. (1985, 1987 photo...

Figure 17: Dynamic equilibrium volumes of tidal inlet elements (see text) as a function of SLR rates for two Dutch inlets. Vertical line represents present conditions (from Van Goor et al. 2003).

Figure 18: Temporal plots of wetland loss and relative sea level since the mid-1900s (from FitzGerald et al. 2007). Sea-level curve from the Grand Isle gauge (Miner 2007) and wetland loss data from Ba...

Figure 19: Conceptual evolutionary model of a mixed-energy barrier coast to a regime of accelerated SLR (from FitzGerald et al. 2006).

Figure 20: Morphological changes along the Friesian Islands for the 1650–1960 period illustrating how reduction in backbarrier area (drainage area) reduces tidal prism and affects barrier sediment bud...

Figure 1: The Wilson Cycle of the opening and the closing of the ocean basins. Plate tectonic analysis, which requires rigid-body rotations, is not possible for times before the age of the oldest pres...

Figure 2: Circum–West African craton suture zone. An early application of Wilson Cycle interpretation to Precambrian geology by Burke and Whiteman in 1970. An old craton was recognized in West Africa,...

Figure 3: The Great Arc of the Caribbean. A change in emphasis in Wilson Cycle interpretations of regional geology in recent decades has been that island arcs and ribbon continents that have collided ...

Figure 4: Shear wave velocity map at the core-mantle boundary (CMB) (from Becker & Boschi 2002). Thick lines are the plume generation zones (PGZs) that lie on 1% slow shear wave velocity contours on t...

Figure 5: Equatorial cross section of Earth showing mantle circulation dominated by sinking mantle, which consists of lithospheric slabs and slab debris (shown between blue arrows), and rising mantle ...